Stress: Causes, Definitions and Impacts

Stress: Causes, Definitions and Impacts Rosalina Das Definition â€Å"Stress is the trash of modern life-we all generate it but if you dont dispose of it properly, it will pile up and overtake your life.†Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Danzae Pace â€Å"a reaction of a particular individual to a stimulus event†. (Skinner, 1985) â€Å"stress may be viewed as the body’s response to any real or imagined event perceived as requiring some adaptive response and/or producing strain† (Elliot, 1988) â€Å"stress can be considered as any factor, acting internally or externally that makes it difficult to adapt and that induces increased effort on the part of the person to maintain a state of equilibrium both internally and with the external environment†. (Humphrey, 1992) â€Å"stress is caused by a multitude of demands (stressors), such as an inadequate fit between what we need and what we are capable of, and what our environment offers and what it demands of us†. (Levi, 1996) a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well being. (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) As can be inferred from the definitions above, there are three main ways to define stress. Firstly, we can define stress as a factor of stimuli a person is subjected to. The greater the pressure, the more will be the stress perceived. This takes into account the cumulative nature of stress. Secondly, stress can be defined as the response to aversive stimuli. This train of thought was publicised by Selye who also called the physiological changes that the body undergoes as a response to stimuli as the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). Stress is a usual human reaction to pressure when confronted with challenging situations. This pressure is not only about what is happening in our surrounding, but also about the demands that we place on ourselves. Stress is essentially a reply to a stimulus that interrupts our physical or mental equilibrium. A stressful event can trigger the â€Å"fight-or-flight† response which results in a sudden flow of hormones namely adrenaline and cortisol through the body. Stress is the â€Å"wear and tear† our bodies go through as we adjust to our continually changing environment. It has both physical and emotional results on us and can craft positive or negative feelings. Stress is not a medical condition, but severe stress that continues for a longer period of time may lead to a diagnosis of depression or anxiety, or other severe mental health problems. Causes of Stress Stress triggering events are different for different individuals. According to surveys, stress related to work contributes the highest percentage. In the united states, 40% workers admit to have stress caused due to their work and 25% blame work as the biggest cause of stress in their lives. In general, change in an existing situation of a human being causes stress. This is caused due to lack of control over the existing situation. The changes might be good or bad changes, but they might cause stress to a person. The few common causes of stress are: Job interview Examination New relationship/ Breaking up of old relationship Marriage Serious illness in oneself or a friend or family member Moving to a new place Death of friends or family/ Birth of a child Unemployment Insufficient resources to manage the family Caring for a disabled friend or family and many similar situations. This stress is causes as one has to re-adjust their life in accordance with the new phenomenon. The below diagram depicts the three major reasons of stress in college going students. Stress isn’t always caused by outside factors, sometimes it comes from inside. People can stress themselves by worrying about things. The internal factors causing stress are: Fear and uncertainty about events that are outside someone’s control. Worrying about such events can only cause stress, but not any improvement of the situation. Attitudes and perceptions of the world. A person’s point of view of events and situations can make a huge difference. The same situation may be perceived differently by different people and thus generate different level of stress. Unrealistic expectations. When expectations don’t match reality, it causes stress. The below graph shows the causes of stress in American citizens according to a survey. Types of stress All animals, including human beings have a natural stress response and it is very helpful. But severe stress can cause both physical and mental harm. There are various kinds of stress depending on its causes and effect. A little amount of stress, called â€Å"acute stress† is the most common form of stress. It could be tolerable, in fact it might be constructive in the sense that it keeps a person active and alert. It is usually for a short term of time. Also stress in long-term termed as â€Å"chronic stress,† can have major effect on both physical and mental health of a person. It often develops when a person loses hope of getting out of a bad situation and they stop giving effort to get out of it. â€Å"Episodic Stress† is the kind of stress that originates from a continuous exposure to mismanagement and crisis in life. This is usually found in type ‘A’ personalities as the are always in a hurry, but always late. Episodic stress is caused by constant worrying, pessimism, anxiousness and depression. â€Å"Traumatic stress† is the kind of stress caused by events threating one’s life. For example being in a major accident, involved in war, physically or mentally assaulted or having faced a natural disaster can causepost-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD). Symptoms of stress The signs of stress can show in various forms. Listed below are various signs of stress. Physical Signs of Stress Increased heartbeat Sweating/ freezing hands Headache Shallow or erratic breath Causing nausea, stomach upset Fatigue Disturbance in sleep Weight gain/loss Increased/decreased appetite, increased alcohol consumption Cognitive Signs of Stress Forgetfulness Being unmindful, Difficulty in concentrating Difficulty in understanding Negative self-assessment and negative self perception Emotional Signs of Stress Getting angry, irritated easily Anxiety, feelings of panic Fear Crying Increased conflicts in personal life Getting frustrated easily Impact of stress Stress is a major concern of the modern world. The below statistics depicts how it has impacted the human race. 43% percent of adults suffer from stress related health problems Stress related ailments contribute to 75%-90% of all doctor visits. Stress is declared as a hazard of the workplace by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) declared. More than $300 billion is spent annually to cope up with stress in the American industry. Untreated, chronic stress reactions can cause a lifetime prevalence of emotional disorder in more than 50% of people. In long term, stress can cause serious impact on our body. Skin.Stress causes various skin problems likeacneandpsoriasis. Muscles.Stress can cause neck,shoulder and lowback pain. It also worsensrheumatoid arthritis. Stomach.Stress causes and aggravates stomach problems like irritable bowel syndrome, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) ans peptic ulcerdisease. Heart.Stress causes coronary artery disease,heart attack, heart failure,high blood pressure, arrhythmia or erratic heartbeat,blood clotting and atherosclerosis or hardening of thearteries. Lungs.Patients having asthmaand chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are severely affected by stress. Reproductive system.Stress is found to have a impact in causing lowfertility, sexual problems in men, complexion duringpregnancy and painful menstrual periods etc. Immune system.Constant stress adversely affects the human immune system. This impacts even more for persons having chronic illness like AIDS. Stress can worsen the situation of such patients. Panic Attack. Apanic attackis a sudden, intense fear or anxiety that may make a person feel short of breath, dizzy or makes the heart pound very fast. Stress can cause panic attacks. Stress Management Stress managementrefers to the verity of medical andpsychotherapiestechniques which helps in controlling a patient’s stress levels. The treatment may be there for chronic stress or episodic Stress or traumatic stress. Managing stress is all about taking charge. If one controls one’s thoughts, emotions, schedule, and the way one deals with problems, then they can overpower stress. Step #1: Identifying the source of stress The first step to manage stress is to identify the sources of stress in one’s life. The sources are not always evident and most of the times it is hard to find the real source. This might because we are well acquainted with our way of life and it’s hard to point out what is wrong with it. It is important to find the root cause of stress because that is the key to treat it. Step #2: Change the situation We should try to avoid the situation that is causing stress. If the situation is unavoidable, then we must try to alter it. Figuring out the key points to bring about a change in the current situation helps in dealing with stress. This might involve changing few things like communication, relationship or any other way of life. But this change has to be ensured so that it can lead to a less stressful situation. Step #3: Adapt to the change It is hard to adapt to any change. But we must ensure that changing the life style doesn’t result in more stress. Also it is advisable to cope up with the changes made as soon as possible. We can adopt to stressful conditions and also regain our sense of control by modifying our attitude and perception. Step #4: Avoid further unnecessary stress Stress can’t be always avoided. But we should make a conscious effort to keep it at bay. Isolating situations which causes unnecessary stress can help. Situations which might cause this kind of unnecessary stress could be eliminated in advance. We should just make sure that the peace of mind should be preserved at all cost. Step #5: Time Management Stress can be avoided by proper usage of time. Dividing up your work into small segments of doable chunks and dedicating proper amount of time to all activities in a day can reduce the stress in work environment. One should dedicate some buffer time for unexpected activities so that in case of any emergency, the time table is not shattered. Step# 6 Meditation and breathing exercises When stress takes over, the sympathetic ANS pumps adrenaline and other hormones into the body to prepare it for action. Usually, the parasympathetic ANS eventually takes over and calms the body down. You can help the parasympathetic ANS take over by practicing meditation and breathing exercises. Combine meditation and breathing into one exercise by doing the following: Sit down comfortably and close your eyes. Begin taking slow, measured breaths. Take note of where in your body the breaths originate. After a while, let your body breathe entirely on its own while still focusing on the breath. Notice which parts of the body your breathing moves: From your hands and feet to the top of your head. If you begin to think about anything other than breathing, set your concentration back on those breaths and how they affect your body Simple things can lead to relieve stress. For example talking to a trusted person (friends or family), calling up someone and have a friendly chat, talking to experts via phone helpline or internet, exercising, taking deep breaths, eating a healthy diet, taking a vacation, time management etc. Conclusion As can be inferred from the definitions above, there are three main ways to define stress. Firstly, we can define stress as a factor of stimuli a person is subjected to. The greater the pressure, the more will be the stress perceived. This takes into account the cumulative nature of stress. Secondly, stress can be defined as the response to aversive stimuli. This train of thought was publicised by Selye who also called the physiological changes that the body undergoes as a response to stimuli as the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). Stress is a usual human reaction to pressure when confronted with challenging situations. This pressure is not only about what is happening in our surrounding, but also about the demands that we place on ourselves. Job traits and Hackman Oldham model Motivation and job satisfaction is important. Factors like job satisfaction, job expansion, job turnover, job enrichment, etc. should be ensured to ensure the minimal level of stress occurring at workplaces. Hackman Oldham job traits model present in their paper have selected to study the impacts of job traits on job stress. In their study on a telecommunication company, Richard Hackman and Edward Lowler (1971) concluded that employees’ job satisfaction is higher and their performance and attendance in workplace is better when they feel traits like skill diversity, task nature, independence and engaging with other further in their job. This study paved the ground for Hackman and Oldham job traits model in 1975. Through a research, they found that employees’ job satisfaction and performance increase and their turnover and absenteeism decrease when they enjoy high levels of job traits such as skill diversity, job nature, task importan ce, independence and job feedback. Hackman and Oldham job traits model consists of three parts: (1) job major aspects including skill diversity, job nature, task importance, independence and job feedback; (2) mental conditions including the feeling of having an important job, accountability, being informed of job results; and (3) working and individual ramifications including promoting inner motivation on job qualitative performance improvement, job satisfaction promotion and mitigating job relinquish. Stress is part of life and sometimes unavoidable. Sometimes a little amount of stress is helpful too. It is only when stress lasts for a longer period of time and exceeds one’s capability of handling it, stress becomes harmful. Stress impacts one’s physical and mental health, relationship, family, work environment and one’s whole life. But stress can be handled. Instead of stress manipulating one’s life, one can learn to manipulate the stress by oneself. By enhancing one’s vision, raising the available resources regarding stress, one can cope up with stress. It is important to know one’s strength and limits regarding handling stress. It is always advisable to take external help if needed to cope with the anxiety and stress in one’s life. Useful contacts Emotional / Relationships Problems 1. Aasra, Mumbai Direct crisis intervention and counselling services for people who are depressed or feeling suicidal. Phone:+91 22 2754 6669 Timings:All Days :24 Hours Email:[emailprotected] Website:www.aasra.info Depression, anxiety, obsession and mental health Rethink Mental Illness Support and advice for people living with mental illness. Phone: 0300 5000 927 (Mon-Fri, 10am-2pm) Website:www.rethink.org Depression Alliance Charity for sufferers of depression. Has a network of self-help groups. Website:www.depressionalliance.org CALM CALM is the Campaign Against Living Miserably, for men aged 15-35. Website:www.thecalmzone.net Contact the Stress Counselling helpline Talk in confidence, 24 hours a day. Call:0800 092 3189 Useful books The Relaxation Stress Reduction Workbookby Martha Davis, Elizabeth Robbins Eshelman, Matthew McKay Publishers New Harbinger Publications: ISBN 1572242140 The Anxiety and Phobia Workbook By Edmund J. Bourne The Feeling Good Handbook By David D. Burns,David D. Burns (Preface by) References http://www.rose-hulman.edu/StudentAffairs/ra/files/CLSK/PDF/Section%20Two%20Instructor%20Resources/Sources%20of%20Stress%20Among%20College%20Students.pdf http://www.globalresearch.com.my/journal/management_v03n01/0007_Article_167_Final_JoGM_Jan2012_V3N1_PG093_105.pdf http://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/sgc/learning/FileStore/Filetoupload,217650,en.pdf http://www.mind.org.uk/media/977061/how-to-manage-stress-2012-2-.pdf http://www.purdue.edu/swo/generalwellness/KnowItAll/stress/DifferentKindsofStress.pdf http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2011/impact.pdf http://www.webmd.com/balance/guide/causes-of-stress http://m.medlineplus.gov/topic/stress.htm http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/stress.html http://www.angeloflifehealthandnutrition.com/energy-and-stress-relaxation.html http://www.apho.org.uk/resource/view.aspx?RID=44871 http://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/effects-of-stress-on-your-body http://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/stress-management-effects-of-stress Every Child Matters Policy: Outcomes, Aims and Application Every Child Matters Policy: Outcomes, Aims and Application Are the objectives of the Every Child Matters policy set by the government being met in actual use and practice? Contents (Jump to) Abstract Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 – Method Chapter 3 – Results 3.1 Every Child Matters Green Paper 3.2 Childrens Act 2004 3.3 Children’s Trusts   3.4 Every Child Matters: Change for Children   Chapter 4 Discussion Chapter 5 – Conclusion   Tables – Diagrams Bibliography   Abstract In September of 2003 the policy initiative â€Å"Every Child Matters† was presented to Parliament, sparked by the death in 2000 of eight-year-old Victoria Climbie, who was a victim of child abuse, and murder by her aunt Marie-Therese Kouao, and bus driver Carl Manning (BBC New, 2005). The striking as well as earth shaking factor in this tragic instance is the very strong possibility exists that Victoria’s suffering, and death could very well have been prevented. While it is impossible to predict what might have happened, the official inquiry into this case as headed by Lord Laming, investigated every facet, including the child protection system (BBC News, 2003). The preceding uncovered that there were at least twelve incidences whereby the system failed Victoria Climbie in terms of her welfare. Most noteworthy, in terms of the system becoming alerted to the potential of child abuse and or problems, were the child’s two visits for injuries to the hospital, the sec ond, which entailed a two-week stay (BBC News, 2003). The horrific summary just provided does not do justice to the details contained within this case that outraged the public as well as authorities. The Laming Report uncovered that information sharing between agencies failed to take the necessary and required steps to intercede (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). The Inquiry resulted in the recommendation of a structure that would eliminate the potential for ambiguity in the decision making process for children and families (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). This examination of child care policies shall analyze if the resulting Every Child Matters policies are meeting the purpose for which they were developed and devised. Chapter 1 – Introduction The death of Victoria Climbie resulted in an Inquiry conducted by Lord Laming to investigate the childcare system and make recommendations based upon the findings. In keeping with the aforementioned, the Inquiry Report recommended the following changes as well as inputs to the system (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003): Elimination of what the Inquiry termed as â€Å"buck passing†, through guidance procedures, Implementation of a coherent set of practices, policies, protocols and strategies for service delivery, Placement of the preceding into statues that define a clear process for monitoring as well as decision making of performance and follow up, Reduction of what the Inquiry called the ‘gap’ between the intention of the agencies, and the achievement as demonstrated by actual performance, eliminating the unpredictable facets of service delivery though the improvement of efficiency as well as effectiveness, Addressing the preventive aspects with families and increasing the support invention process that has deteriorated through proper funding and staffing, Understanding that the protection as well as support of children calls for a broader scope than just the statutory agencies. The process needs to include close association with community-based groups to broaden the scope of involvement, information, alerts and resources. A change in the manner that the agencies approach, see and work, as represented by the utilisation of their resources. The preceding calls for all agencies to carry out their part of the process, with a clear delineation to staffing of their primary responsibilities to children and families. The recommendations in these areas consisted of the following: Services must be child as well as family oriented, Be responsive to needs and opportunities, Services must have adequate resources, Be capable to delivering measurable national outcomes with regard to children, Be clear in terms of accountability throughout the agencies and organisation, Be transparent in its work processes and open to detailed scrutiny, Services, procedures, guidelines, protocols and policies must be clear as well as straightforward in terms of being understood, Services need to be placed on a statutory foundation, given the powers to ensure delivery of the outcomes desired. To achieve the aforementioned ends, the Inquiry set forth structure changes that recommended major changes within the structures that deliver services to children and families (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). It also identified that a key weakness in the system were the circumstances under which case reviews were conducted, adding that the that structure needs to be replaced by one that is more comprehensive as well as active (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). Another critical aspect in the problems uncovered by the Inquiry was the referral and response levels of the agencies. The Inquiry made specific reference to sections 17 and 47 of the Children Act 1989 whereby (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003): Section 17 The segment of the Children Act 1989 places the responsibility as well as duty on the local authority for the safeguarding and promotion of welfare for children that are in need in their area. Section 47 The section of the Children Act 1989 calls for the local authority to make inquiries in instances where it is believed and or thought necessary whereby a child is suspected of being exposed to harm. The problem with the preceding, especially Section 47, is that the Inquiry found that considerable confusion existed as to what inquiries should be made, with permission from the child’s carer required before other invention measures could be introduced if the preceding was refused (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). Under Section 17, the social services could respond only when exceptional circumstances dictated, after permission as outline above had been obtained (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). Furthermore, it was found that once the Section 17 designation assigned a label to a case, it was downgraded in terms of status and frequently poor follow up ensued (The Victoria Climbie Inquiry, 2003). The aforementioned aspects were brought forth in order to have a basis for understanding the reasons and dynamics of the recommendations of the Victoria Climbie Inquiry (2003), the resulting policies, and performance since enactment. This examination shall investigate how the objectives of the Every Child Matters policy is being met through the use of council and agency support. This document is structured to present the methodology utilised, followed by the results of the research process, which is then discussed to determine the significance of the findings, and the implications. A conclusion has been utilised to summarise the examination, drawing upon the information and research uncovered to formulate what the preceding uncovered. Chapter 2 – Methods The methodology utilised in this examination entails a combination of evidence based research techniques and quantitative research. The term research in this examination represents a systematic inquiry â€Å"characterized by sets of principles, guidelines for procedures and which is subject to evaluation in terms of criteria such as validity, reliability and representativeness† (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1995, p. 5). In the context of this paper, social research represents â€Å"the collection and analysis of information on the social world, in order to understand and explain that world better† (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1995, p. 5). Key to the preceding process is the collection of evidence to support the research process, which requires much fuller information to fulfill its directive (Evans, 2006). The foregoing calls for a strong design in the research process to generate the evidence base (Potter, 2007). The foregoing was accomplished by reviewing the legislation as well a s historical development of the Every Child Matters initiative, starting with the reasons that prompted its development. Quantitative research represented conducting the gathering of information systematically, looking for relationships in the examination in the context of the study. Newman and Benz (1998, p. 2) tell us that â€Å"Most quantitative research approaches, regardless of their theoretical differences, tend to emphasize that there is a common reality on which people can agree.† With that underpinning, this examination strived to look for a clear delineation of facts that would closely approximate the preceding statement. To this end, surveys and studies were used as a basis for correlating facts, combined with the key purposes behind varied legislation. This look into the programmes that have led up to and are part of the â€Å"Every Child Matters† initiative shall utilise evidence based practice to uncover the facts, assess what has been gathered, and critically appraise the process and strategies in their present state. Chapter 3 – Results 3.1 Every Child Matters Green Paper The †Every Child Matters† Green Paper (literacytrust.org.uk , 2003), contains four main proposal areas that were devised in response to the recommendations as made under Lord Laming’s Inquiry Report concerning the death of Victoria Climbie. These four key areas are (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003): support of parents and carers, early intervention, along with effective protection, accountability and integration, reform of the workforce To aid in achieving the preceding, the Green Paper recommended a ‘Parenting Fund’ of  £25 million to be added for a three-year period to underwrite the changes (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003). The critical aspect as identified under the Victoria Climbie Inquiry (2003) was early intervention, which the Green Paper advised represented improving the information sharing between agencies and authorities, the utilisation of a singular and unique identification number so that all information would fall under the same file, and the development of a common data network that is coordinated among all authorities and agencies to ensure that all information resides in one file database (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003). Governmental changes as identified under the Green Paper called for the creation of a Director of Children’s Services to deliver education to local authorities and children’s social services as well as the position of the Minister for Children, Young People an d Families in the Department of Education and Skills that would have the responsibility for coordination of policies across all agencies and authorities (literacytrust.org.uk, 2003). 3.2 Children Act 2004 The Children Act 2004 put into place the legislative foundation to enable the policy changes as put forth under the Every Child Matters Green Paper (literacytrust.org.uk, 2004). The objective was the maximisation of opportunities, along with minimising risk for children and young people via the leadership of the Director of Children’s Services within the local authorities (Brachnell Forest Borough Council, 2007). The Children Act 2004 advises that the total number of children in the program has remained fairly consistent over the past ten years, with only minor upward and downward fluctuations (Department for Education and Skills, 2004). The Children Act 2004 was enacted on 15 November 2004 and established (Department for Education and Skills, 2004): A Children’s Commissioner whose responsibility is to champion the interests and views regarding children as well as young people. Makes it the duty of Local Authorities to co-operate with other Local Authorities as well as agencies and bodies to improve the well being of children through information sharing and other forms of cooperation. Made it the duty of Local Authorities to implement local Safeguarding Children Boards that include key partners to participate. The provision for databases that contain information that enables better sharing capabilities between all authorities, agencies and other bodies. The development of an integrated inspection framework, along with Joint Area reviews to provide an assessment on progress The important facets of the preceding changes and modifications to the Children Act 1989 is that it set forth the following (Department for Education and Skills, 2004): Duty to Cooperate The Children Act 2004 under section 10 sets forth the duty for local authorities and agencies to cooperate with the guidance under the Act, thus representing the authority as well as framework for children’s trusts. Guidance on the Children and Young People’s Plan Under section 17, it contains the key facet regarding the implementation of children’s trusts via a strategic plan for local authorities and allied services, partners and agencies. Guidance with respect to the roles as well as responsibilities of the Director of Children’s Services with regard to the Lead Member of Children’s Services. Guidance on Working Together with the objective to Safeguard Children. Guidance under section 11, on the Duty to Safeguard and Promote the Welfare of Children The preceding aspects were actualised under the Children Act 2004 through a national framework for change that specifies areas, working inwards to achieve targeted timetables as shown below: 3.3 Children’s Trusts Children’s Trusts represents the framework whereby all services for children and young people are brought together in an area, supported by the Children Act 2004 (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a). The central foundation of the Children’s Trusts is that they represent the active core of support for those who work daily with children, young people as well as families, with the objective being the delivery of improved outcomes via more integrated as well as responsive services (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a). The integrated strategy utilises the following methodology for effective results and working processes (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a): the use of a joint needs assessment, sharing decisions on priorities, the identification of the resources available, and the devising of a set of joint plans to deploy the preceding. The critical aspect of the foregoing is the joint commissioning that pools resources to deploy the best outcome by directing action to those resources and the people best qualified to complete the services (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007a). In March of 2007 a national evaluation of the Children’s Trust Pathfinders was conducted that took in all 35 units and included a number of evaluative reports conducted on various segments of the program (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007b). The evaluation resulted in a number of recommendations that identified shortcomings and limitations in the delivery of services (national children’s bureau, 2006): The evaluation stated that a clarification is needed regarding exactly what the term participation means as there were different interpretations uncovered in the analysis. The approach procedures concerning participation were determined to be less than effective in terms of being systematic. To move participation beyond listening to active engagement that involves users. The development of support systems to enables the end users, children – young people – families, to fully participate as well as engaging them in a strategic manner. To see that participation utilises a broad range of differing and diverse methodologies to solicit as well as gain the views of children, young people and families. Recognition that the community as well as voluntary sectors have important roles and have users that have difficulty interacting with official bodies. Take the time, along with the commitment to construct as well as improve the infrastructure needed for effective participation by end users. The study of user participation that entailed case studies in eight children’s trusts, along with three additional sites involved 107 professionals from management as well as differing levels in education, health, social care as well as local authorities (national children’s bureau, 2006). The perception of professionals was positive in terms of the increased engagement with users, children, young people and families, commenting that it helped to raise their self esteem as a result of being part of the process (national children’s bureau, 2006). User perceptions among those surveyed indicated a lack of participation, and or limited experience, also commenting that there was a lack of information regarding this aspect (national children’s bureau, 2006). The users cited that they would be interested in participatory engagement, as long as it was meaningful, as opposed to being tokenistic, and if such participation actually resulted in change (national childr en’s bureau, 2006). In addition to the preceding, the surveyed users indicated that feedback in terms of important issues as to where they were, and the actions being taken, and or the outcomes would be useful in transparency (national children’s bureau, 2006). The survey participants also indicated that they felt more involvement would improve relationships. Those surveyed added that they felt that listening was not a culture trait in the country, thus participation was not, in their opinion, a positive process unless they could see results based upon a broad feedback from issues they participated in, as well as those of other users (national children’s bureau, 2006). The users surveyed also added that they felt that participation was not really representative, voicing the opinion that the same people were asked about their views and opinions repeatedly, as opposed to the process seeking out more individuals to participate (national children’s bureau, 2006). The methodology, in terms of gathering opinions was also questioned, in that the field of reach could be widened through the utilisation of questionnaires as well as discussion groups (national children’s bureau, 2006). It was suggested that such measures should be advertised broadly, and utilise a wide variety of measures in order to make the process participato ry as opposed to being selection based (national children’s bureau, 2006). The manner in which the overall process operates, is designed and performs was also raised. Users, community and volunteer groups indicated that this represented a key area as the process is supposed to represent one of inclusion, thus, their inputs in these areas should be consulted (national children’s bureau, 2006). One specific example was the drafting of questionnaires. Users felt that they should be included in the process to design the questions that would appear on questionnaires as well as assist in the discussion panel formulations to make the process truly participatory (national children’s bureau, 2006). The preceding represent limitations that users felt did not involve them in the overall process that was designed to aid and benefit them. The foregoing factors represent clear indications that users want to as well as should be a more active part of the process. Their views indicated that they desired to be included in the developmental phases as opposed to being interview subjects, and felt that they should have a deeper, and more meaning participation level as members of the public, especially as members of the public for whom the services are targeted. Strategic involvement represents an important issue in that it engages users and provides inputs that the overall process can utilise in modifying and improving service delivery as well as the notification process on the part of the public as to potential abuse issues. The foregoing view is brought forth by Petr (2004, p. 79) who points to the importance of the inclusion of parents and users in the process as a means to heighten participation. The foregoing approach is also espoused by Northridge et al (2005), who state research partnerships should be an inclusive pro cess that involves participants and community agencies in the process. Boyden and Ennew (1997) also advocate the importance of users in the participation process in terms of taking part and being involved, as well as the benefits of gaining insights from their inputs. The study concluded that users want greater participation in the process, and that a variety of methods and approaches need to be utilised to obtain the views, ideas, input and concerns (national children’s bureau, 2006). It also recommended that a broad variety of methods should be utilised and exploited in order to obtain the views of users as well as their recommendations and suggestions, providing more transparency in the processing and outcome of the aforementioned to make the system more effective and user, community based (national children’s bureau, 2006). 3.4 Every Child Matters: Change for Children â€Å"Every Child Matters: Change for Children† (HM Government, 2004) represented the national framework to improve outcomes for children as well as young people (Brachnell Forest Borough Council, 2007). The policy indicates that it is committed to seeing that five key outcomes are achieved that are important to a child’s well being, these represent â€Å"†¦ being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a positive contribution, and achieving economic well being †¦ (HM Government, 2004). The initiative sets forth key objectives and targets with regard to the underpinning of the entire framework of children’s services. The foregoing are represented by the following (HM Government, 2004). : The improvement as well as the integration of all services, covering a child’s early years, in the schooling environment, along with health services. To provide more specialised help to prevent problems, promote opportunities, and most importantly to act early as well as effectively in the event that problems arise. To reconfigure services so that they revolve around the child and family under children’s centres, extended schools, and through professionals engaged in multi disciplinary teams. To develop and have engaging as well as dedicated leadership throughout all levels of the system. The development of an atmosphere of shared responsibility throughout the system and across system lines that focuses upon the safeguarding of children, as well as protection from harm. To heighten the listen atmosphere, centring on children, young people and families in the assessment processes, along with planning facets, and especially in face-to-face encounters. The preceding bear strong similarity to the recommendations and findings as set forth under the study conduced by the National Children’s Bureau (2006), which pointed out that these lofty objectives have not fully been met. The five outcomes as represented by â€Å"†¦ being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a positive contribution, and achieving economic well being †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (HM Government, 2004), upon deeper examination entail the following: Be Healthy physical health emotional and mental health sexual health lifestyles that are healthy the election not to partake of illegal drugs and that carers as well as families actively promote healthy choices Stay Safe safety from maltreatment, violence, neglect and exploitation sexually safety from accidental injury as well as death safety from bullying and discrimination safety from criminal activities, crime and anti social behaviour that security and stability are seen to Enjoy and achieve that children and young people are ready for school that children and young people attend school that they achieve social as well as personal development and have recreational activities they enjoy Make a positive contribution that children, young people and families are engaged in decision making as well as support their communities that children, and young people engage in behaviour that I law abiding, both in an out of school that they develop self-confidence that they develop behaviour that is enterprising Achieve economic well-being that young people engage in higher education, training and or employment that young people are prepared and ready to be employed that children and young people live in homes that are decent in sustainable communities that they have access to transport and that they live in households free of low income All of the preceding have been set as objectives to foster the development of children and young people through adulthood as well as address the tragic situation as brought forth by the Victoria Climbe situation. In order to attain the foregoing, local children’s services under the Children Act 2004 are held accountable for the deliverance of improved outcomes via inspection (HM Government, 2004). The preceding is to be accomplished by (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c): Robust and active inter-agency accountability and governance The â€Å"local authority director of children’s services† establishment of cooperative arrangements with like service units and local authorities (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c). The partners in this arrangement include entities from the â€Å"public, private, voluntary and community† sectors (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c). Area child protection committees are replaced by local safeguarding children boards Under the foregoing â€Å"Every Child Matters: Change for Children† (HM Government, 2004), the integrated strategy represents the following elements (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007c): The joint assessment of the local needs that involve users. The utilisation of a singular plan that is shared between all children’s service units. The pooling of budgets. The use of joint area reviews for the inspection of children’s services on the local level. Integrated frontline service delivery to improve user outcomes at the strategic level. In terms of integrated processes, â€Å"Every Child Matters: Change for Children† (HM Government, 2004) calls for (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007d): The use of â€Å"new common initial assessment† frameworks to â€Å"reduce duplication and improve referrals† (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007d). Improved information sharing. The re-engineering of â€Å"local processes and procedures †¦ to support integration around the needs of children. The integrated frontline delivery represents the manner via which the foregoing is accomplished within the overall framework (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e): â€Å"Integrated, accessible and personalised services â€Å" represent the manner via which the preceding will be approached, building the processes â€Å"around the needs of children and young people† as opposed to service, and or professional boundaries (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e). The shift of focus to prevention as well as safeguarding. Services to be co-located in locations such as children’s centres as well as extended schools. The reform of workforces to result in staffs that are well trained, with the credo that children are the focal point, understanding that their needs are uppermost. The â€Å"development of multi-disciplinary teams† along with professionals. The strategy representing the improvement of outcomes is founded upon â€Å"changing the behaviour of those working with the users via more integrated as well as responsive service delivery (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e). The foregoing calls for the use of specialist support that is embedded throughout the system, and which can be accessed by all service units (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e). The key to the process is in workforce reform in terms of attitudes, trained staff, the internal development of common skill sets and knowledge base, utilising the element of trust as well as information sharing (everychildmatters.gov.uk, 2007e). Chapter 4 – Discussion In equating the results achieved under the programmes established for Every Child Matters the Department for Children, Schools and Families published a report equating evidence in support of the plan (2007). The Report assessed the achievements as well as shortcomings and limitations of progress thus far as achieved: Table 1 – Results Findings – Every Child Matter Be Healthy (Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2007) Table 2 – Results Findings – Every Child Matter/Stay Safe (Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2007) Stay Safe < UK Iron and Steel Industry: Market Trends UK Iron and Steel Industry: Market Trends Basic Iron and steel in UK – Analysis Headlines UK’s basic iron and steel market contracted by 6.8% to  £10.6 billion in 2013 as prices of steel declined due to the overcapacity in steel production Industry of structural metal products increased its purchase of steel due to the growing private housing sector in UK in 2013 Motor vehicles, trailer and semi-trailers decreased their share of purchases in the industry by 12% as it is substituted with aluminium in pursue of lower CO2 emissions In 2013 EU Commission creates Communication Action Plan for a development of competitive and sustainable steel industry in Europe Basic iron and steel industry is expected to continue falling by 2% in 2014 due to oversupply in UK steel production and iron ore mining globally MArket Trends Basic iron and steel market in the UK declined by 6.8% to  £10.7 billion in 2013. Although the main buyer in the industry – structural metal products increased its share of purchases over the year, the industry still felt the pressure from overcapacity and declining prices of steel in Europe. Structural metal products producers were the key buyer in the basic iron and steel industry accounting for 18% of the B2B purchases which stood at  £1.9 billion in 2013. The share increased usage in construction sector which was boosted by the rapidly growing private housing segment and overall construction output in the UK. Private Housebuilding was driven by the government’s deposit guarantee programme Help to Buy designed for purchases of new homes in the UK. Motor vehicles, trailer and semi-trailers accounted for 12% of the purchases in the industry. Despite a 1.3% increase in number of vehicles manufactured, acquisitions of basic iron and steel declined by 12%. Demand of steel from automotive industry is declining due to increasing use of aluminium. Vehicle manufacturers are reducing vehicle weight in order to cut CO2 emissions in order to comply with new EU standards. Basic iron, steel and ferroalloys accounted for 46% of the market size in the industry in 2013. After experiencing a 2% decrease its market value stood at  £4.9 billion. The decline was determined by the decreasing prices of steel products. HRC Europe steel prices declined by 6.4% in 2013 due to oversupply of steel in the global market. As well as global steel market, the European market has been confronting a growing overcapacity of steel production and declining demand over the recent years. To address the issues of struggling EU market of iron and steel industry, an EU-wide plan named Commission Communication Action Plan for a sustainable and competitive steel industry in Europe was created on June, 2013. Currently, the plan is offering to reduce or remove electricity feed-in tariffs related to renewable electricity on energy-intensive industries to make them more competitive internationally. In 2013 import penetration fell by 9% and accounted for 65% of the market size reaching value of  £5.8 billion. The imports decreased due to the overcapacity in the global steel production and restart of Teesside steel plant which increased the output of steel in the country in 2013. Currently active antidumping duties on Chinese wire rods are about to expire. In April, 2014 European steel association Eurofer inquired for an over 20% anti-dumping charge for Chinese wire rod in order to protect EU producers. The new query will prolong the duty by approximately 15 months until the answer is given. production Trends Overcapacity has been pressuring UK’s as well as the global iron and steel market. Production capacity of steel increased by 118 million tonnes over the last two years and is expected to total in 2,2 billion tonnes in 2014. However, UK’s production decreased only by marginal 1% over 2013. Though different segments managed to grow as e.g. production of basic iron, steel and ferroalloys recorded a 2% increase and accounted for 62% of total industry’s production. While the industry has marginally declined some companies managed to increase their production. E.g. Teesside Steel Co owned by Thailand SSI renewed its production in the UK in 2013. In addition, during the same year Teesside Steel Co recorded its production record in Red car plant after expanding its production capacity. The steel output in the industry was also supported by improvements of the Tata Steel’s Port Talbot plant. Its blast furnace was rebuilt increasing steel production over the same year. Recycling of metal waste and scrap industry accounts for 16% of basic ferrous and non-ferrous industry costs in UK. Approximately 13 million tons of scrap metal are being processed by steel industry annually. Recycling is important to UK producers as it allows to keep emissions, energy consumption and total costs at bay in comparison to steel production from ore. Mining of metal ores made 12% of total costs in UK during 2013. Despite an increase in production of basic iron and steel at constant price of 1.2% , costs related to mining of metal ores declined by 1%. Decrease in metal ore costs was driven by decline in price of iron ore in second half of the year as global production of iron ore grew by 5% accounting for approximately 2 billion tonnes in 2013. Exports of basic iron and steel accounted for 65% of total production and recorded a 0.7% growth in 2013. Exports were driven by the growing demand from emerging economies such as Turkey which accounted for 11% of the UK’s exports. Growing Turkish construction and transportation expenditures positively affected the demand for UK’s production. Steel, basic iron and ferroalloys experienced a 2% increase in the share of industry’s exports. 2013 profits almost doubled which left them standing at  £783 million. The industry benefited from a 7% decrease in its costs which had positively reflected on the profits. Competitive Landscape The top 5 companies in the basic iron and steel industry accounted for 20% of total production in the UK in 2013. The leader with 14% was Tata Steel UK Ltd. The company was followed by other industry’s players accounting for a less significant share of production: Caparo Steel Products Ltd (2%), Hill Smith Holdings Plc (2%), and Thamesteel Ltd (1%). Tata Steel UK Ltd a subsidiary of the Tata Steel Europe is a UK-based company that specializes in production of basic iron and steel. It has 3 plants located in the UK with 18,000 employees. In October, 2013 the company announced it will build Vacuum Induction Melting (VIM) furnace at its Stocksbridge site in South Yorkshire, UK. It has also increased its steel output from Tata Steel’s Port Talbot plant due to the reconstuction of its blast furnace. The development had a significant impact on growing steel production in the UK in 2013. By 2016 the company is planning on investing  £400 million in long products business. However, due to the sluggish demand in the market Tata Steel has been considering selling parts of its operation in the UK due to the underutilization. Caparo Steel Products Ltd of Caparo Group is a company located in the UK that specializes in production of basic iron and steel. The company is based in London, UK, with additional locations in the UK, India, Spain, Poland, North America, Canada, and Dubai. Caparo Steel has 1,000 employees in the UK. In October, 2014 the group announced plans to invest â‚ ¬4 million in its UK and Polish operations. The company has been reviewing its operations in UK and announced plans to consolidate its production in one site considering to close the wire company in Wrexham, UK. However, workers are expected to keep their jobs as company anticipates using the other base for testing technologies and steel distribution. Hill Smith Holdings Plc is a company that produces galvanized iron and steel. It operates under the following segments: Infrastructure Products, Galvanizing Services, Building and Construction Products and employs over 700 workers. The company has also upgraded its plant in Chesterfield, UK. In general, production volumes of steel products increased by 18% in 2013 due to the the expansion into emerging markets. On April, 2013 the group acquired a large plant in Kent, UK operated by Medway Galvanising Co Ltd. In addition, Hill Smith Holdingd acquired trade and specific assets of Arkinstall Galvanizing Ltd. Thamesteel Ltd is a UK-based subsidiary of Al-Tuwairqi Holding. The company specializes in steel manufacturing and operates a 50 acre site in Sheerness, on the Isle of Sheppey, UK and employs 400 workers. The plant went into administration in 2012 it became the property of Al-Tuwairqi Group. However, the new negotiations have been taking place in 2013 to reopen a rolling mill using imported steel billets and then exporting its production again. New mill is expected to employ around 120 workers; however, the plan is still in state of negotiations. Prospects Basic iron and steel industry in UK is expected to further decline by 2% in 2014 and over the period of 2013-2019 the industry is anticipated to record a negative 1% CAGR. Drawing of iron and steel is expected to record an 11% drop in turnover due to the continuing surplus in the industry and slumping demand. Average global iron ore price in 2014 is expected to decline approximately 49% in 2013 translating into further decreasing costs for the industry. It is not expected for global iron ore price to return to US$100 level for near future as world production output is going to further increase at faster pace than demand. By 2018 global iron-ore surplus is expected to reach 300 million tons. UK’s market of steel is expected to remain weak over the forecast period due to the overcapacity of steel production in UK and globally. As a result production of basic iron, steel and ferroalloys is anticipated to experience slowdown in its CAGR. Due to prolonged decline in production of steel in Europe, steel industry is expected to become one of the main focuses by EU Commission over the forecast period. Reduction and restructuration of capacity in the industry will also play a significant role as EU Commission is aiming at reaching the contribution of steel market towards EU GDP to increase from current 15% to 20% by 2020. The industry is expected to be less pressured by the prices of power and gas as the Government has announced its prediction of wholesale prices to remain fairly steady until 2020 when electricity price is expected to reach  £54 per MWh. However, latter prices are expected to challenge the competitiveness of electricity from wind farms and nuclear plants further.

Stress in Athletics Essay examples -- Sports Athletics Athletes Teams

Stress in Athletics In the Journal article by Mark H. Anshel, entitled Qualitative Validation of a Model For Coping With Acute Stress In Sports. Explains how stress affects athletes, and how they can go about to deal with the problem, or cope with the problem. The author breaks this down into four categories. First, they want to perceive a stimulus or experiencing an event, secondly, appraising that event as stressful, thirdly, using either approach or avoidance coping strategies each consisting of either cognitive or behavioral strategies, and finally enacting post-coping activity that consists of either remaining on task, reappraising the stressful situation, examining the effectiveness of the coping strategy, or disengaging from further sport participation. Stress itself is a widely studied characteristic; it is defined as an interaction between an individual and the surrounding environment. Most research on stress is just new, but has been a topic for the last 20 years. But most new studies on stress have to deal more with the coping process. â€Å"Coping is the person’s conscious attempt at reducing or managing the demands of a stressful event or expanding the person’s resources to deal with the event (Anshel, 2001).† Previous research by Gottlieb (1997) explained â€Å"how coping strategies related to acute forms of stress differ from chronic stress, and that many contexts of chronic stress do not end themselves to an event-centered strategy of measuring coping (pg...

Pressure

Pressure Definition of Pressure Fluid pressure: Force per unit area exerted by a fluid in a solid wall. Force acts perpendicularly to the surface in contacts. Fluid is a co u d s common word for gas a d/o liquid. o od o and/or qu d Pressure is a scalar quantity. It has the units of: N/m2 or Pa (or kPa) in SI system of units psi in Imperial system of units Pressure can also be expressed in terms of height of a column of liquid List of units of pressure measurements & conversion of units Pascal s Pascal’s law Scalar quantityUnits of Pressure SM(2) Pressure Pressure measurements Absolute pressure Gauge Pressure †¦ divided into three different categories: 1. Absolute pressure – which is defined as the absolute value o pressure (force-per-unit-area) ac g o of p essu e ( o ce pe u a ea) acting on a surface by a fluid. su ace ud Abs. pressure = pressure at a local point of the surface due to fluid – absolute zero of pressure (see page 63 of lecture notes) 2. Gauge pressure – difference between abs. pressure and atmospheric pressure – is always positive 101. 325 kPa or 14. 7 psi Equations Pressure term relationships a –ve gauge pressure is vacuum ve vacuum. Pressure term relationships †¢ Abs pressure = gauge pressure + atm pressure Abs. †¢ Abs. pressure = – gauge pressure + atm pressure (vacuum) > atm < atm SM(3) Pressure Pressure measurements Relation between abs. , gauge and vacuum Absolute pressure Gauge Pressure gauge Equations gauge) Pressure term relationships SM(4) Pressure Pressure term relationships Hydrostatic pressure 3. Differential pressure – measurement of an unknown pressure minus the reference to a o e u e e e ce o another unknown p essu e o pressure. – it is used to measure differential pressure i. . pressure drop (? P) in a fluid system SM(5)Fluid systems and Fluid pressures Fluid systems Two types of fluid systems: 1. Static system – in which fluid is at rest F luid pressures Pressure measured i thi system i called static pressure P d in this t is ll d t ti Static pressure system s stem ‘’The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is The due to its own weight acting on unit area at that depth plus external pressure acting on the surface o the qu d of t e liquid’’ Gauge pressure = ? gh – which i d hi h is dependent j t only on fl id d d t just l fluid density ( ) it (? and distance between below the surface of the liquid h. External pressure – is generally the atmospheric pressure SM(6) Fluid systems and Fluid pressures Fluid systems Fluid pressures Example: A hydraulic pump used to lift a car: when a small force f is applied to a small area a of a movable piston it creates a pressure P = f/a. This pressure is transmitted to and acts on a larger movable piston of area A which is then used to lift a car. Static pressure p Lesson: Pressure along the horizontal line always remains the same for uni form singly fluid SM(7) Fluid systems and Fluid pressures Fluid systemsFluid pressures Example: If the height of the fluid's surface above the bottom of the five fluid s vessels is the same, in which vessel is the pressure of the fluid on the bottom of the vessel the greatest ? The amount of liquid in each vessel is not necessarily the same. y Answer: The pressure P is the same on the bottom of each vessel. Gauge pressure =F Force/Area /A = ? (hA)g/A = ? gh ‘’For gases: the pressure increase in the fluid due to increase in height is negligible because the density (thus, weight) of the fluid is relatively much smaller compared to the pressure being applied to the system’’.In other words, p = ? gh shows pressure is independent of the fact that the wt. of liquid in each vessel is different. This situation is referred to SM(8) as HYDROSTATIC PARADOX. Static pressure p Fluid systems and Fluid pressures Pressure term relationships Two types of fluid systems: 2. Dynamic pressure system Dynamic pressure system – more complex and diffi lt t measure l d difficult to – pressure measured in this system is called dynamic pressure – three terms are defined here 1. static pressure, 2. dynamic p p y pressure 3. total pressure SM(9) Fluid systems and Fluid pressuresDynamic pressure system Pitot tube Total pressure/Stagn p g ation press. Steady-state dynamic systems – Static pressure can be measured accurately by tapping into the fluid s ea (po A) e u d stream (point ) – total pressure (or stagnation pressure) can be measured by inserting Pitot tube into the fluid stream (point B) –;gt; total pressure (or stagnation pressure) = static pressure+ dynamic pressure SM(10) Fluid systems and Fluid pressures Dynamic pressure system Pitot tube Total pressure/Stagn p g ation press. SM(11) Problems 1. The diameters of ram and plunger of an hydraulic press are 200 mm and 30 mm, respectively.Find the weight by the hydraul ic press when the force applied at the plunger is 400 N. Solution: Diameter of the ram, D = 200 mm = 0. 2 m Dia. of plunger, d = 30 mm = 0. 03 m p g , Force on the plunger, F = 400 N Load lifted, W: Area of ram, A = (pi/4)*D2 = 0. 0314 m2 Since the intensity of pressure will be Area of plunger, equally transmitted (due to Pascal’s Pascal s 4 a= ( i/4)*d2 = 7 068 * 10-4 m2 (pi/4)*d 7. 068 law), therefore the intensity of Intensity of pressure due to plunger, pressure at the ram is also = p = 5. 66 * 10-5 N/m2 p = F/a = 400 / 7. 068 * 10-4 But the intensity of pressure at the = 5. 6 * 105 N/m2 ram = Weight /Area of ram = W/A = Therefore, W/0. 0314 = 5. 66 * 10-5 W/0. 0314 or W = 17. 77 * 103 N = 17. 77 kN SM(12) Problems 2. For the hydraulic jack shown here find the load lifted by the large piston when a force of 400 N is applied on the small piston. Assume the specific weight of th li id i th j k i 9810 N/ 3. i ht f the liquid in the jack is N/m Solution: Diameter of small pis ton, d = 30 mm = 0. 03 m Area of small piston, piston a= (pi/4)*d2 = 7. 068 * 10-4 m2Pressure intensity transmitted to the Diameter of large piston, D = 0. 1 m large piston, 5. 89 * 105 N/m2 Force on the large piston = Pressure intensity * area of large piston 5. 689 * 105 * 7. 854 * 10-3 = 4468 N Area of large piston, A = (pi/4)*D2 = 7. 854 * 10-3 m2 Force on small piston, F = 400 N F ll i t Hence, load lifted by the large piston = 4468 N Load lifted, W: Pressure intensity on small piston, p = F/a = 400 / 7. 068 * 10-4 = 5. 66 * 105 N/m2 Pressure at section LL LL, pLL = F/a + pressure intensity due to height of 300 mm of liquid = F/a + ? gh = 5. 66 * 105 + 9810 * 300/1000 = 5. 689 * 105 N/m2 SM(13) Problems 3. A cylinder of 0. 25 mm dia. and 1. m height is fixed centrally on the top of a large cylinder of 0. 9 m dia. and 0 8 m h i ht B th th cylinders d 0. 8 height. Both the li d are filled with water. Calculate (i) Total pressure at the bottom of the bigger cylinder and cylinder, (ii) Wt. of total vol. of water What is the HYDROSTATIC From the calculations it may be observed that PARADOX between the two results? the total pressure force at the bottom of the cylinder is greater than the wt. of total volume Solution: Area at the bottom, of water contained in the cylinders. A = (pi/4)*0. 92 = 0. 6362 m2 (p ) This is hydrostatic paradox paradox.Intensity of pressure at the bottom p = rgh = 19620 N/m2 Wt. of total vol. of water contained Total pressure force at the bottom in the cylinders, y P = p*A = 19620 * 0. 6362 = W = rgh * volume of water 12482 N = 9810 ((pi/4)*0. 92 *0. 8 *(pi/4) *0. 252*1. 4) SM(14) = 5571 NReferences †¢Transport Phenomena by Bird, Stewart, Lightfoot †¢Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic machines by R K Rajput R. K. †¢http://www. freescale. com/files/sensors/doc/app_note/AN1573. pdf (18 F 10) †¢http://www. ac. wwu. edu/~vawter/PhysicsNet/Topics/Pressure/Hydro Static. html (18 F 10) SM(15)

Advertising - Gender and Social Stereotypes Essay

Marilyn Monroe, Marlboro Man, Hugh Heffner, Pamela Anderson, and The Rock are all examples of the society of idols whom the American public has looked up to in various media forms. In today’s society there are many gender and social stereotypes that remain a prevalent part of the advertising tactics of the media. In the particular ad that I have chosen are examples of gender stereotypes that I would like to analyze and discuss using Douglas Kellner’s article â€Å"Advertising Images†. Kellner states that the tobacco industry in both the past and present use subliminal messages with the intention of portraying lifestyles and choices to the American public. Cigarette ads in particular, Kellner argues, â€Å"contribute to identity formation in†¦show more content†¦The fact that the woman is well-dressed and seemingly high society also adds to the desire of the â€Å"everyman† to attain â€Å"their very identity† (Kellner, 189) from the influe nces of this ad. What woman wouldn’t want power, status, perfect features, and men falling at her every move? And, of course, this can all be attained simply by smoking Camel cigarettes. Similarly the men are also being shown â€Å"socially desirable and meaningful traits† (Kellner 189). Men are being shown an existence where they could attain everything they so desire, a beautiful and sexy woman, a great job, as evidenced by their classy attire, and a happy lifestyle devoid of care and worry. These are definitely all characteristics that men strive to attain, and the ad is also promoting its product at the same time. There are two interpretations given of men in this ad. The first is that if men find a woman who smokes Camel cigarettes they will have everything they desire. The second is that if men purchase Camel for themselves, they can obtain everything. In either interpretation the existence of Camel is involved but the follow-up action is up to the individual con sumer as to whether he chooses to use the cigarettes or not. This particular Camel ad â€Å"depicts how something as seemingly innocuous as advertising can depict significant shifts in modes and models of identity† (Kellner 193) and how it can speak to a larger public about the values and goals of life as a largerShow MoreRelatedWomen And Women Are Like Dogs1544 Words   |  7 Pagesdifferences between the genders. Advertisers capitalize on the fact that men and women are different in order to persuade individuals to consume products and services. Advertising is an important medium in modern society and is used to influence many of the purchasing decisions made by male and female consumers. It is a powerful tool that expresses, develops and alters ideas of gender and social class. Since people identify themselves by their gender, advertisers focus on stereotypical gender characteristicsRead MoreGender Roles And Gender Stereotypes Essay1449 Words   |  6 PagesProspectus: G ender roles and gender stereotypes in advertising My position: I believe advertisements that reinforce female gender roles and stereotypes are damaging to society. 2. Non-favorable Incidents: The examination of the â€Å"Victoria’s Secret† ad for a line of undergarments labeled â€Å"The Showstopper.† The headline is â€Å"Show nothing but your shape,† and the image is a thin woman with big breasts staring seductively. The image clearly sets a tone that this is what is a stand of ideal beauty. AndRead MoreAdvertising Advertisements And Body Image1645 Words   |  7 Pagesguidance note, approved by the EASA Board in 2009, is designed to assist the advertising industry and SROs in ensuring that women and men continue to be portrayed positively and responsibly in advertising. History - WOMEN IN ADVERTISEMENTS AND BODY IMAGE Authors have also attempted to correlate various demographic variables such as age and education, as well as geographic variables with preferences for role portrayals in advertising. Through the ages men have been considered to be financial providers,Read MoreGender Portrayal Of Gender Roles953 Words   |  4 Pageswomen continue to be depicted in very distinct gender roles throughout the mainstream media (Eisend, 2010; Lull, Hanson, Marx, 1977; Collins, 2011). This gender stereotyping effect is especially prevalent within advertising. Because advertisements in the media frequently rely on gender roles to promote products and services (Eisend, 2010), research examining the effects of gender portrayals in advertising has become increasingly important in the social and behavioral sciences. Of particular significanceRead MoreBefore Diving Into The Current State Of Male Roles In Advertising,1322 Words   |  6 Pagesthe current state of male roles in advertising, it is necessary to review past gender stereotypes and how they have developed in the past. Looking at advertising through the media from a social determinist standpoint, the existing cultural and social values and progresses are what determine how gender roles are portrayed in media. This would go against the cultivation theory notion that the media used to portray men and women are what shape our cultural and social ideologies. Grau and Zotos (2016)Read MoreA Modern Wall Street Journal Survey1537 Words   |  7 Pagessurvey of students in four Chicago-area schools found that more than half the fourth-grade girls were dieting and three-quarters fell they were overweight. Specifically, respondents in this study trust that women are not accurately depicted in advertising in Canada. Methodology In order to add ress the research propositions of the study, the encore needed a method for mention the types of pistillate portrayals featuring in the context of consumer magazine advertisements. Content analysis was chosenRead MoreGender Stereotypes : Advertising Makes Sense Financially For Those Advertising Essay1149 Words   |  5 Pages The purpose of this research paper is to prove that using gender stereotypes in advertising makes sense financially for those advertising. It argues that by using stereotypical examples of the â€Å"in group† of it’s target audience the goal of the advertisement will more likely be achieved. This paper addresses but does not dispute the idea that using stereotypes in advertising can have negative effects on its audience. However if selling an idea or product is the end goal it makes sense to presentRead MoreHow does the mass media reinforce sterotypes?1508 Words   |  7 Pagesengage in stereotyping, misleading representations concerning members from diverse cultural groups are confirmed. In this essay, a broad range of texts will be used to examine the ways in which the mass media construct and reinforce social stereotypes around gender, ethnicity and age, as well as how the media shape ones imagination though direct images. It cannot be doubted that the media profoundly influence peoples attitudes and outlooks. They convey a whole variety of information which individualsRead MoreHow Women Are Portrayed On Advertising And The Second Looks At This Time1104 Words   |  5 Pagesproject is the topic of how women are portrayed in advertising and the impact this has on women in society. 2. State the claim the study supports The scholarly article I am reviewing is a research article that did two separate examinations on the role of humor in gender stereotypes. The first one is the role of humor seen in television advertisements and the second looks at peoples attitudes toward humorous and non-humorous ads that have gender stereotypes in them and how that would affect a persons desireRead MoreSocial Psychologists And The Human Information Processing System1632 Words   |  7 Pagesaddition, for two of the interviews, a feminist deconstructionist methodology was employed to pursue the underlying gender conceptions of each informant. Informants were asked whether they could imagine the women in the ads as men, or vice versa, in order to uncover traits and values so habitually defined as masculine or feminine that they are unimaginable in the other sex. (Stem, 1993) Social psychologists have argued that schema, networks of memory-based associations that organize and guide an individual

Why Marijuana Is The Common Juvenile Crime Performed By...

Based on the report of Global Youth Justice Organization, the misuse of marijuana is the common juvenile crime performed by the youth. Marijuana abuse was ranked to be #6 in their list. Teens are being involved to marijuana use for diverse reasons and this includes poor supervision and communication of parents, family problems, lack of self- discipline, lack of discipline from parents or guardians, and family history of marijuana or drug abuse. Other risk factors would be physical and sexual abuse, emotional problems, curiosity, and peer pressure (GlobalYouthJustice, n.d.). Drugs have become a part of teen’s life. The access to drugs has become easier that why they can purchase anytime they want. The most common drugs to teens would be†¦show more content†¦Many of the psychological effects depend on the setting in which marijuana is used. When the user takes it while alone, he or she may feel drowsy and restful. people who take it with other often become talkative and intellectually stimulated. Marijuana has a marked effect on memory for recent events. Information learned while â€Å"high† is difficult to recall. Conversations can be disjointed because of an inability to remember what has just been said. Such effects are transient and no permanent effects appear to occur with occasional marijuana use, but regular high- dose use may impair memory. Short term effects would abnormal increase of heart frequency, blood flow to other brain regions, and blood pressure. An individual who ingest marijuana would feel a sense of relaxation, heightened sensory perception, euphoria, and hilarity. The negative mental effect includes anxiety, panic attacks, and hallucinations. A lot of users said that they feel lazy after they smoke marijuana. Marijuana intoxication change the view of time as well as surroundings and damage reaction time and this affects the driving skill of a person which could lead to motor accident. Another effect of marijuana is that it would always make a person feel hungry or increase in appetite, as a result the person will eat large amount of food. It damages the person’s learning skills, and can cause short- term memory. TheShow MoreRelatedCompassion Impacts Wayward Youth1619 Words   |  7 PagesJuvenile court systems developed in Chicago based on the patriarchal premise that a tough compassionate judge co uld impact the lives of wayward youths. However, politicians changed this with â€Å"tough on crime† policies for election. Many juvenile criminals became labeled as â€Å"superpredators† and were thus deemed beyond any help and were tried as adults. Fortunately, not everyone in the criminal system believes that juvenile criminals are beyond help. 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Essay on Generation Gaps in Flannerys A Good Man is Hard...

Generation Gaps in Flannerys A Good Man is Hard to Find The use of symbolism that emphasizes a major gap between the two generations, as well as religion, theme, and imagery along with an intriguing story plot make Flannerys A Good Man is hard to Find one of Americas classic short stories. Imagery is widely used in OConnors story, which makes the characters and surroundings seem lifelike. In the depiction of the grandmother the reader can visual see the woman sitting in the car waiting on the others to arrive. Her collar and cuffs were white organdy trimmed with lace and at her neckline she had penned a purple spray of violets containing a sachet. These are a few phrases of description that OConner used to describe the old†¦show more content†¦They both agreed that a good man is hard to find. The children and the ways of the grandmother symbolized the division between the generations in the story. The children, June Star and John Wesley, represent a new generation of unruly and disrespectful people. On the other hand, the grandm other represents the strong, southern heritage and stubborn godly beliefs. The two conflict when they discuss going to Tennessee rather than go to Florida, which is what the grandmother wants to do. June Star, who can read the grandmother like a book, remarks after John Wesley told his grandmother to stay at home if she did not want to go to Florida, She wouldnt stay at home for a million bucks. Afraid shed miss something. She has to go everywhere we go. This is a prime example of the loss of respect the children had for the grandmother. The grandmother does nothing but reply, Alright, Miss. The generation gap creates a stir, but the outcome of the two coinciding might be positive. Religion is a crucial point of the story. Coming to the end of the story, The Misfit and the grandmother are alone together talking. The Misfits responses to the grandmothers prayers advice reveal that these two individuals are on two very different levels with concern to religion. The Misfit has a much d eeper understanding of religion and his belief system than does the grandmother. As the two continue in conversion, the Misfit asks the grandmother if it seems right that Jesus was

Strategic Management Dissertation free essay sample

The nature of corporate strategy problems cannot easily be framed within a fixed paradigm. Strategic management is necessarily a multi-paradigmatic discipline, requiring varied theoretical perspectives and methodologies. The purpose of this paper is to present and assess the evolution of corporate strategic management in the first decade of the current century, particularly under the influence of the recent economic crisis. For the last two decades strategic management has been dominated by a resource-based view. Recently we can distinguish two important perspectives of research: behavioral and institutional. The first regards decision-making processes of company executives based on considerable progress made by psychologists in identifying and validating fundamental cognitive constructs which are promising for advancing theory and research on top management teams. The institutional perspective is based on increased realization of the importance of national and global institutions for the competitiveness of companies, sectors and countries. Keywords: strategic management, evolutionary framework, behavioral perspective, institutional perspective, entrepreneurship, hypercompetition. JEL codes: D01, D02, D03. Introduction Strategic management as a field of inquiry is one of the more important and widely cited subjects and forms a critical part of the business and management curriculum at all levels. In the early 1960s, there was little mention of strategy in company reports, whilst today it is difficult to find a company report without encountering the word strategy several times. The field, like medicine or engineering, exists because it is worth codifying, teaching, and expanding what is known about the skilled performance of roles and tasks that are a necessary part of our civilization [Rumelt, Schendel amp; Teece 1991]. Strategy started life with a high degree of practitioner orientation and the theoretical perspective now holds sway. Strategy is academically more respected but arguably less relevant to needs of practicing managers [Ghobadian amp; O’Regan 2008]. 1. Strategic management as an academic field of inquiry Strategic management as an academic field has been reconceptualized and relabeled – from ‘business policy’ in 1979 by Schendel and Hofer [1979]. Strategic management is now a firmly established field in the study of business and organizations. During a relatively short period of time, this field witnessed a significant growth in the diversity of topics and variety of research methods employed. The field of strategic management is eclectic in nature. Its subject of interest overlaps with several other vigorous fields, including economics, sociology, psychology, marketing and finance. It is commonly asserted that the field of strategic management is fragmented and lacks a coherent identity. This skepticism, however, is paradoxically at odds with the great success that strategic management has enjoyed. According to Nag, Hambrick and Chen [2007] strategic management’s success as an academic field emerges from an underlying consensus that enables it to attract multiple perspectives, while still maintaining its coherent distinctiveness. Strategic management’s apparent weakness seems to be its strength. Its amorphous boundaries and inherent pluralism act as a common ground for scholars to thrive as a community without being constrained by a dominant theoretical or methodological strait-jacket. Strategic management acts as an intellectual brokering entity, which enables the simultaneous pursuit of multiple research orientations by members who hail from a wide variety of disciplinary and philosophical regimes. At the same time, however, these diverse community members seem to be linked by a fundamental implicit consensus that helps the field to cohere and maintain its identity. 2. Evolutionary framework Early strategy researches were predominantly concerned with identifying firms’ â€Å"best practices† that contribute to corporate success [Chandler 1962; Ansoff 1965]. 83 One of the more significant contributions to the development of strategic management came from industrial organization economics (IOE), specifically the work of Porter [1980, 1985]. The structure-conduct-performance framework and the notion of strategic groups, as well as provision of a foundation for research on competitive dynamics, flourished in the 1980s. The IOE paradigm also brought econometric tools to strategic management research. Building on the IOE economics framework, the organizational economics (OE) perspective contributed transaction costs economics and agency theory to strategic management. More recent theoretical contributions focus on the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm. While it has its roots in E. Penrose’s [1959] work, the RBV was largely introduced to the field of strategic management in the 1980s and became a dominant framework in the 1990s. Based on the RBV or developing concurrently was research on strategic leadership, strategic decision theory and the knowledge-based view (KBV) of the firm. Research focus returned to the company inside. The case method based on clinical case studies was preferred by the early strategy scholars. There was little attempt to generalize the findings of a case to strategy making in general. Largely because of this approach, strategic management was not regarded as a scientific field worthy of academic study. As the field embraced IOE, it began to emphasize scientific generalizations based on the study of broader sets of firms. Additionally, strategy researchers increasingly employed multivariate statistical tools with large data samples. The availability of commercial databases such as PIMS and COMPUSTAT provided strategic management research with convenient access to a large amount of firm level data. The development of strategic management into a more respected scholarly field of study was at least partially a result of the adoption of â€Å"scientific† methods from IOE. The research methodologies are becoming increasingly sophisticated and now frequently combine both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Normative, inductive case-based studies had dominated the early history of strategic management. Positivistic, deductive empirical research based on the falsification philosophy of Popper became dominant during the next period. Concern with explanation and prediction, rather than prescription, was strongly advocated by strategy scholars with the aim to elevate the field to a more rigorous, â€Å"scientific† academic discipline. The above described evolution of strategic management for the period 1960– 1999 can be shown with the aid of pendulum swings [Hoskisson et al. 1999]. After forty years the field of strategic management returned to its roots, e. . to the company inside (Figure 1). Strategic management owes a considerable intellectual debt to economic theory. A significant section of the strategy schools grew out of the neoclassical economic theory. The most influential contribution was undoubtedly M. Porter’s Competitive Strategy [1980] based on industrial economics. Porter argued that competitive ad84 vantage can be sustained. The doctrine of sustaina ble competitive advantage was embedded in the mainstream economic theory. 3. Last crisis effect on strategic management field Till now there has been no direct evidence that the last financial crisis had an influence on the strategic management theory. There is a significant inertia factor as in each field of science. The editorial cycle in the most prestigious journals is at least two years. For example, in 2010 The Academy of Management Journal published a significant article by four authors: Mishina, Dykes, Block and Pollock, titled Why ‘good’ firms do bad things: The effects of high aspirations, high expectations, and prominence on the incidence of corporate illegality. The article was based on a sample onsisting of all manufacturing firms that were part of the Samp;P 500 between 1990 and 1999 and had December 31 fiscal year-ends. The resulting data set contained 194 firms and 1749 firm-year observations. Mishina’s et al. research [2010] identified 469 incidents of corporate illegality, of which 162 were environmental violations, 96 were fraud-related, 124 were related Figure 1. Pend ulum swings: theoretical and methodological evolution in strategic management Source: [Hoskisson et al. 1999] Early Development Resource-Based View IO Economics Organizational Economics Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside 85 to false claims, and 87 were anticompetitive violations. Recent corporate scandals involved prominent, high-performing firms. There is the assertion that the cost of getting caught decreases the likelihood that such high performers will act illegally. The authors have explained this paradox by using theories of loss aversion and hubris based on behavioral economics (see Section 4). Results demonstrate that both performance above internal aspirations and performance above external expectations increase the likelihood of illegal activities. The authors argue, on the base of behavioral economics, that the threat of decline in an organization’s future relative performance and the potential costs to the organization and its managers of not meeting internal aspirations and external expectations increase the likelihood of illegal behavior, and that this likelihood is even greater when a firm is also prominent (e. g. Arthur Andersen, Enron, World Com or Tyco). The study contributes to the growing literature exploring how cognitive biases shape top management team (TMT) decision making. Eight years before the above study, Bazerman, Loewenstein and Moore [2002] in their prophetic article Why good accountants do bad audits, written just after President G. W. Bush signed into law the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) in July 2002, warned of the repetition of accounting scandals. They underlined the psychological reasons of fraud. Corporate auditing is particularly vulnerable to unconscious biases. Accounting scandals such as Andersen’s audits of Enron, may have at their core a series of unconsciously biased judgments rather than a deliberate program of criminality. The most important in this case is self-serving bias: armed with the same information, different people reach different conclusions – ones that favor their own interests. Bazerman, Loewenstein and Moore [2002] stated that the reforms in the SOX did not address the fundamental problem of self-serving bias, and therefore they would not eliminate further scandals in the future. They were right. Most major financial institutions, which had to be rescued from insolvency in 2008, were more than compliant with SOX. At the banks that collapsed, 80% of board members were independent. All firms had evaluated their internal controls yearly, and the 2007 reports from their external auditors showed no material weaknesses in those controls [Pozen 2010]. But that did not stop the failures. The model for corporate governance was broken [Lui 2011]. The reforms did little to improve the quality of people serving on boards or change their behavioral dynamics. Each company should be free to craft the exact nature of the professional directors’ role in accordance with the size and scope of the business [Evans 2010]. In fact, almost any allocation of roles between directors and management is permissible in the United States under the current legal framework – the same is true in most free-market countries. Few CEOs would voluntarily embrace any scenario that shifts a significant degree of power from management to the board. A few brave and confident CEOs from sound companies might actually be willing to try out the new model. The practice 86 of majority often starts from the initiatives of a few enlightened CEOs. If experiments with the new model were to generate higher earnings or stock rices for the companies involved, then the new model would spread [Pozen 2010]. Pozen [2010] proposed a model of professional directorship. In this model, all boards would be limited to seven persons. Most of the independent directors would be required to have extensive expertise in the company’s lines of business, and they would spend at least two days a month on company business beyond the regular board meetings. The articles discussed above represent two different perspectives: behavioral and institutional. These two perspectives are strictly related by feedback. Institutions influence behavior of decision-makers. The behavioral perspective regards microeconomic decision-making by company’s executives. The institutional perspective regards macroeconomic institutions. Thus, the basic hypothesis of this article is that the two perspectives have dominated the current strategic management literature, although RBV is still influential (Figure 2). Figure 2. Evolution of predominant area of research in strategic management institutions (North, Williamson) ypercompetition (D’Aveni) capitalism reform (Porter, A. Smith) entrepreneurship (Schumpeter) innovations decision-making proces corporate governance Porter Jensen Wiliamson Wernefelt Barney Chandler Andrews Anso_ Decades 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Decision-maker Firm Industry Predominant areas of research State, Group of states, Global economy 87 4. Behavioral perspective: micro level Behavioral economics strengthens the expl anatory possibilities of economics by providing it with more realistic psychological foundations. The most influential authors, Kahneman and Tversky [1979], documented violations of neoclassical economics and proposed an axiomatic theory grounded in psychological principles. Behavioral economics is founded on the premise that human beings are not totally rational and are motivated by unconscious cognitive biases. 4. 1. Cognitive biases and improvement of strategic decision-making Kahneman and Tversky [1974] introduced the term â€Å"cognitive bias† for the description of a deviation pattern in the judgment of people that occurs in particular situations. It is used to describe effects in the human mind, some of which can lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, or illogical interpretation. Biases (e. g. framing, self-serving, confirmation, hindsight, loss aversion, status quo bias, money illusion, etc. ) can be classified on a number of dimensions. Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and Lampel [1998, pp. 150–173] distinguished a cognitive school in strategic management based on the achievements of cognitive psychology. A strategy is some kind of interpretation of the world and strategy formation is a cognitive process that takes place in the mind of the strategist. Thus, strategies emerge as mental perspectives – in the form of concepts, maps, and frames – that shape how people deal with inputs from the environment. A survey prepared by McKinsey amp; Company [Lovallo amp; Sibony 2010] confirmed that cognitive biases affect the most important strategic decisions made even by the smartest managers in the best companies: mergers routinely fail to deliver the expected synergies, strategic plans often ignore competitive responses, and large investment projects are over budget and over time. Despite the growing awareness of psychological aspects of decision-making, most executives are incapable of recognizing their own biases. Kahneman, Lovallo and Sibony [2011] described how to detect bias and minimize its effect. Most strategic decisions are influenced by many people and decision-makers can adjust their ability to spot biases in others’ thinking. We may not be able to control our own intuition, but we can apply rational thought to detect others’ faulty intuition and improve their judgment. Kahneman, Lovallo and Sibony [2011] developed a tool based on a 12-question checklist that is intended to unearth defects in cognitive biases of the teams making recommendations for executives. A study by Lovallo and Sibony [2010] of 1048 important business investments showed that when organizations worked at reducing the effect of bias in their decision-making processes (â€Å"debiasing†), they achieved returns (ROI) up to seven percent. 88 4. 2. Leadership A big part of the strategic management literature is devoted to CEOs (chief executive officers). Leadership, especially in a firm’s senior positions, has a significant impact on company performance. Recently, psychologists have made considerable progress in identifying and validating fundamental constructs that hold considerable promise for advancing theory and research on top management teams. There are several psychological concepts useful in strategic leadership analysis: the concept of core self-evaluation, the idea of intuition, the concept of entrepreneurial passion, etc. Some new issues regarding leadership have appeared recently. According to I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi [2011], people behave less ethically when they are part of an organization. Individuals who may do the right thing in normal situations behave differently under stress. Common rationalizations, that one is acting in the company’s best interest, or justification that one will never be found out, lead to misconduct. Business leaders must extend beyond the company and create the common good. CEOs need to ask if decisions are good for society, as well as for their companies. Companies should start thinking of themselves as social entities charged with a mission to create lasting benefits for society. Unless companies create social as well as economic value, they will not survive in the long run. I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi [2011] after studying leadership in different organizations in the world, show that the use of explicit and tacit knowledge is not enough and CEOs must also draw on a third, often forgotten kind of knowledge, called practical wisdom. Practical wisdom is the experiential knowledge that enables people to make ethically sound judgments. The world needs leaders who will make judgments knowing that everything is contextual, and will make decisions knowing that everything is changing. . 3. Innovation Innovation is the central job of every leader, regardless of the place he or she occupies on the organizational chart. Innovators rely on their â€Å"courage to innovate† – an active bias against the status quo and an unflinching willingness to take risks – to transform ideas into powerful impact [Lafley 2009]. Dyer, Gregersen and Christensen [2009] id entified five â€Å"discovery skills† that distinguish the most creative executives: associating, questioning, observing, experimenting, and networking. Together, these skills create, according to the authors, the so called â€Å"innovator’s DNA†. Studies of identical twins separated at birth indicate that our ability to think creatively comes one-third from genetics; but two-thirds of the innovation skill set comes through learning – first understanding a given skill, than practicing it, experimenting, and ultimately gaining confidence in one’s capacity to create. 89 To grasp the invention process, it is important to understand how the brain operates. The brain does not store information like a dictionary. Instead, it associates words with experiences from our lives. Some of these are logical, while others may be less obvious and rather emotional. The more diverse our experience and knowledge, the more connections the brain can make. Fresh inputs trigger new association; for some, these lead to novel ideas. Associating is like a mental muscle that can grow stronger by using the other discovery skills. Innovators, engaging in such activity, build their ability to generate ideas that can be recombined in new ways. The more frequently entrepreneurs attempted to understand, categorize, and store new knowledge, the more easily their brains could naturally and consistently make, store, and recombine associations. 5. Institutional perspective: macro level The last decades have shown us that institutions matter, and matter greatly [Kowalski and Wihlborg 2010; Kowalski and Shachmurove 2011]. Corporations are supported and constrained by institutions in their strategic pursuits, and may also attempt to shape them to their own advantage. There is an increased realization of the importance of national and global institutions for the competitiveness of countries and companies. Williamson’s works have been extremely influential in management research, which has helped improve our knowledge on transaction governance and the role of the firm. In the last decade the institutional perspective in strategic management has been strengthened and developed by the concepts of North [1990], who received the Nobel Prize in 1993, sixteen years before Williamson. 5. 1. Douglas North’s theory of institutions North’s theory of institutions [1990] is constructed from a theory of human behavior combined with a theory of the costs of transacting. North’s focus is on the interaction of institutions, defined as any constraint humans devise to shape their interactions, and organizations, created to take advantage of the opportunities presented by institutions in shaping the development of economies. In other words institutions are the rules of the game in a society [North 1990, p. 3]. In consequence they structure incentives in human exchange, whether political, social, or economic. Institutional change shapes the way societies evolve through time and hence is the key to understanding historical change. Institutions affect the performance of economies. The central focus is on the problem of human cooperation – specifically the cooperation that permits econo90 mies to capture the gains from trade. The evolution of institutions that create an hospitable environment for cooperative solutions to complex exchange provides for economic growth. Defining institutions as the constraints that human beings impose on themselves makes the definition complementary to the choice theoretic approach of neoclassical economic theory [North 1990, p. 5]: â€Å"Building a theory of institutions on the foundation of individual choices is a step toward reconciling differences between economics and the other social sciences. The choice theoretic approach is essential because a logically consistent, potentially testable set of hypotheses must be built on a theory of human behavior. The strength of microeconomic theory is that it is constructed on the basis of assumptions about individual human behavior. Institutions are a creation of human beings. They evolve and are altered by human beings; hence our theory must begin with the individual. At the same time, the constrains that institutions impose on individual choices are pervasive. Integrating individual choices with the constraints institutions impose on choice sets is a major step toward unifying social science research†. North’s theory was exemplified by Crossland and Hambrick [2007]. They base it on three fundamental national-level institutions – national values, prevailing firm ownership structures, and board governance arrangements – and argue that CEOs in different countries face systematically different degrees of constraint on their latitudes of action, and hence they differ in how much effect they have on company performance. To test these ideas, they applied a variance components analysis methodology to 15-year matched samples of 100 U. S. firms, 100 German firms, and 100 Japanese firms. Results provided robust evidence that the effect of CEOs on company performance – for good and for ill – is substantially greater in U. S. firms than in German and Japanese firms. For example, in U. S. board governance constraint is reduced by the prevailing practice of CEO/board chair duality and the power of CEOs to influence board member appointments. In approximately 80% of U. S. companies, the CEO chairs the board that is supposed to monitor him or her. 5. 2. Recommendations for institutional change The last global economic crisis provoked a permanent discussion regarding necessary changes of capitalistic institutions. Conclusions of the discussion are very important for strategic management on the corporation level. According to majority of authors [Porter amp; Kramer 2011; Martin 2010; Barton 2011], in recent years business increasingly has been viewed as a major cause of social, environmental, and economic problems. Companies are widely perceived to be prospering at the expense of broader community. Companies remain trapped in an outdated approach to short-term value creation that has emerged over the past few decades. 91 According to Martin [2010] the shareholder value has almost nothing to do with the present value. Present value earnings tend to be a small fraction of the value of common shares. Over the last decade, the average yearly price/earnings multiple for the Samp;P500 has been 27x, meaning that current earnings represent less than 4% of stock prices. For managers, implications of this are clear: the only sure way to increase shareholder value is to raise expectations about the future performance of the company. Short-term rewards encourage CEOs to manage short-term expectations rather than push for real progress. The need for a healthy share price is a natural constraint on any other objective set. Making it the prime objective, however, creates the temptation to trade long-term gains in operations-driven value away for temporary gains in expectations-driven value. To get CEOs to focus on the first, we need to reinvent the purpose of the firm [Martin 2010]. Many reasons of the crisis stemmed from failures of governance, decision making, and leadership within companies. Barton [2011] met with more than 400 business and government leaders across the globe. Those conversations have reinforced his strong sense that, despite a certain amount of frustration on each side, the two groups share the belief that capitalism has been and can continue to be the greatest engine of prosperity ever devised. Barton [2011] underlines that we need a shift from quarterly capitalism to long term capitalism. Executives must infuse their organizations with the perspective that serving the interests of all major stakeholders – employees, suppliers, customers, creditors, communities, the environment – is not at odds with the goal of maximizing corporate value; on he contrary, it is essential to achieving that goal. According to Porter and Kramer [2011], the solution lies in the principle of shared value, which involves creating economic value in a way that also creates value for society by addressing its needs and challenges. Businesses must reconnect company success with social progress. It can give rise to the next major transformation of busi ness thinking. The purpose of the corporation must be redefined as creating shared value, not just profit per se. It will also reshape capitalism and its relationship to society. Shared value should help to start the next wave of business innovation and growth. According to Porter and Kramer [2011], we need a more sophisticated form of capitalism, one imbued with a social purpose. Creating shared value represents a broader conception of Adam Smith’s invisible hand. It is not philanthropy but self-interested behavior to create economic value by creating societal value. There is a general consensus that capitalism as an institution is an unparalleled vehicle for meeting human needs, improving efficiency, creating jobs and building wealth. But a narrow conception of capitalism has prevented business from harnessing its full potential to meet society’s broader challenges [Porter amp; Kramer 2011; Martin 2010; Barton 2011]. 92 6. Strategic entrepreneurship The behavioral perspective has created interests in the role of entrepreneurship in strategic management. Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and Lampel [1998, pp. 124–147] distinguished an entrepreneurial school which focused the strategy formation process exclusively on the single leader, and also stressed the most innate of mental states and processes – intuition, judgment, wisdom, experience, insight etc. The term ‘strategic entrepreneurship’ was created at the beginning of the previous decade in order to describe entrepreneurial action with a strategic perspective. Strategic entrepreneurship is the integration of entrepreneurial (i. e. , opportunity-seeking behavior) and strategic (i. e. , advantage-seeking) perspectives in developing and taking actions designed to create wealth [Hitt et al. 2001]. Contemporary entrepreneurship research originated in the work of Schumpeter [1934, 1942] who argued that the main agents of economic growth are the entrepreneurs. They introduce new products, new methods of production, and other innovations that stimulate economic activity. Schumpeter described entrepreneurship as a process of ‘creative destruction’. He viewed this process favorably, because innovations typically represent an improvement in terms of product or process utility and as a result create greater buyer interest and overall economic activity. Entrepreneurs have ‘carried out new combinations’, including the doing of new things or the doing of things that are already being done in a new way [Schumpeter 1934, pp. 132, 1947]. Entrepreneurship links micro and macro levels in a feedback. Baumol and Strom [2007] underline that current institutions, shaped by history and government are critical in determining where entrepreneurs will find it most promising to direct their efforts. One goal of good policy is the redesign of institutions so as to direct entrepreneurial activity to a beneficial direction. Entrepreneurs recognize the commercial opportunities offered by innovations and transform these opportunities into new products that may improve the lives of all citizens and contribute to increased productivity throughout the economy. Entrepreneurship is perceived as an engine of socioeconomic growth and development, providing new job opportunities and diverse goods and services to the population. The new entrepreneurial practices are emerging by trial and error. Governments need to exploit all available experience and commit to ongoing experimentation. They must follow an incomplete and ever-changing set of prescriptions and relentlessly review and refine them [Isenberg 2010]. The entrepreneurship ecosystem consists of a set of individual elements – such as leadership, culture, capital markets, and open-minded customers – that combine in complex ways. In isolation, each is conducive to entrepreneurship but insufficient to sustain it. The striking dissimilarities of such countries like Rwanda, Chile, Israel, and Iceland illustrate the principle that leaders can and must foster homegrown solutions – ones based on the reali93 ties of their own circumstances, natural resources, geographic location, or culture [Isenberg 2010; Habiby amp; Coyle 2010]. Government cannot build ecosystems alone. Only the private sector has the motivation and perspective to develop self-sustaining, profit-driven markets. For-profit organizations today have the opportunity to collaborate with citizen-sector organizations (CSOs) on problems that neither group has been able to solve independently [Nidumolu, Prahalad amp; Rangaswami 2009]. The power of such a partnership lies in the complementary strengths of the participants: Businesses offer scale, expertise in manufacturing and operations, and financing. Social entrepreneurs and organizations contribute lower costs, strong social networks, and deep insights into customers and communities [Drayton amp; Budinich 2010]. Entrepreneurs can play a central role in finding new approaches to the world’s toughest economic challenges and social problems [Thompson amp; MacMillan 2010]. If successful, socially minded entrepreneurial efforts create a virtuous cycle: The greater the profits these ventures make, the greater the incentives for them to grow their business. And the more societal problems they help alleviate, the more people who can join the mainstream of global consumers. 7. Hypercompetition as a potential new paradigm It is easy to suggest replacing short-term capitalism (quarterly capitalism) by a longterm approach. Now, due to new technologies and globalization, all processes occur faster and faster. Since the mid-1970s, a fundamental change has occurred in the structure of the American – and much of the world’s – economy. It has shifted towards far more competitive markets [Polowczyk 2010]. Technology, globalization, and deregulation – all of these intensify competition among companies to get or keep consumers, and to attract investors. To keep shareholders, CEOs had to do everything possible to raise the value of their companies’ shares. And just as consumers kept the pressure on companies by moving with ever greater ease to a competitor with lower prices or better quality, so did investors – aided by fund managers – become more agile in hunting for bargains. In the 1990s, the average investor held on to a share of stock for a little more than two years. By 2002, the average holding period was less than a year. By 2004, it was barely six months [Reich 2007, p. 71]. It has made markets far more volatile and produced yawning gaps between corporations’ market price and their actual value. The advent of high-frequency trading (HFT) has only strengthened this trend. 1 According to Barton [2011] in the 1970s the average holding period for U. S. equities was about 7 years; now it is more like 7 months. 94 The â€Å"hyperspeed† traders (some of whom hold stocks for only a few seconds) now account for 70% of all U. S. equities trading [Barton 2011]. The managers of the largest pension funds and mutual funds squeeze companies for higher profits. The obsessive drive among CEOs to meet or exceed Wall Street’s estimates of pending quarterly earnings has undoubtedly led to excessively short-term thinking in executive suits, as well as a string of abuses and distortions [Graham, Harvey amp; Rajgopal 2004]. Unsuccessful CEOs were quickly fired, and an average CEO tenure has dropped from 10 to 6 years since 1995 [Barton 2011]. The new competitive landscape in many industries gives rise to a relentless pace of competition, emphasizing flexibility, speed, and innovation in response to the fast-changing environment. D’Aveni [1994, p. 2] coined the term â€Å"hypercompetition† to describe the condition of rapidly escalating competition characterizing many industries: â€Å"an environment of fierce competition leading to unsustainable advantage or the decline in the sustainability of advantage†. Almost from the beginning of strategic management as a field of enquiry, considerable effort has been made to define and empirically demonstrate the existence of sustainable competitive advantage. The two key sustainable advantage models are Porter’s five forces model and the resource-based view of the firm. Both Porter’s five forces model and the resource-based view of the firm are rooted in a conception of the world that is essentially stable. Recent studies suggest that sustainable competitive advantage is rare and declining in duration [Wiggins amp; Ruefli 2002, 2005]. There is growing empirical evidence that the volatility of financial returns is increasing, suggesting that the relative importance of the temporary component of competitive advantage is rising [Thomas and D’Aveni 2004]. The creation and management of temporary advantage is an alternative to sustainable models of competitive advantage. The hypercompetition phenomenon with temporary competitive advantages has significant implications for both practice and research, and needs new analytical methods. The empirical data used for research must match the applied paradigm. Much of the research in Porter’s approach and RBV was largely developed using longitudinal panel data based on public archival annual company or industry data. In the new hypercompetitive landscape data should be more dynamic and detailed, and can be based even on business press or internet daily news. There are many actions which should be analyzed during a month, a week, or day-by-day. For example, new product introduction has a significant positive impact on stock prices immediately after the introduction for the introducing firm. On the other hand, stock prices are negatively affected by rival imitation. The use of daily stock prices allowed to show the Schumpeterian creative destruction effect: the positive effects of innovation and the negative effects of rival response [D’Aveni, Dagnino amp; Smith 2010]. Hypercompetition is probably an unavoidable process covering bigger and bigger areas of the global economy. Capital markets will undoubtedly continue to pressure 95 companies to generate short-term profits, and some companies will surely continue to reap profits at the expense of societal needs [Porter amp; Kramer 2011]. All participants of the economic and business processes have to adapt themselves to the above presented phenomena, as well as the theory of strategic management. Conclusions The above presented evolution of strategic management as a field of academic inquiry at the beginning of the XXI century can be summarized by the following remarks: 1. The last global economic crisis provoked a permanent discussion regarding necessary changes in capitalistic institutions. Conclusions of the discussion are very important for strategic management on the corporate level. 2. The resource-based view is still very influential in strategic management, but now it is supplemented by two different perspectives: behavioral and institutional. Institutions influence behavior of decision-makers. The behavioral perspective regards microeconomic decision-making by company’s executives. The institutional perspective regards macroeconomic institutions. These two perspectives are strictly related by feedback. 3. Processes within the feedback microbehavior-macroinstitutions are supported by the phenomena of entrepreneurship and hypercompetition originated by Schumpeter. 4. The nature of strategy problems cannot easily be framed within a fixed paradigm. Strategic management is necessarily a multi-paradigmatic discipline, requiring varied theoretical perspectives and methodologies. 5. Capitalism as an institution has been and can continue to be the greatest engine of prosperity ever devised, despite the crisis turbulences of the last years.